II.Responses to Other Cultures

When members of different cultures find themselves face to face,a number of responses are possible.History shows that a common response is to clash and to struggle for the dominance of one set of values over another.This is what happened in the early history of the United States.

Immigration has tremendously increased the population of the United States within the past400 years,after initially reducing the native population dramatically.The United States,of course,is primarily a nation of immigrants from other cultures.The history of the past 400 years is the history of the values of certain cultures dominating the values of other cultures.

Priorities in the native cultures of the United States included(traditionally still include today)some things the European immigrants did not value,and vice versa.For example,immigrants wanted to own land;natives thought the idea absurd that humans,with their short life span and feeble strength,would try to own land.

Members of native cultures found significance in knowing their place in the scheme of things in the natural world,their relationship to other living creatures,and their ancient origins.Native Americans looked back over immeasurable time to the source of their existence in animal ancestors who were endowed with significant spiritual characteristics.

The European immigrants were trying to break with history and start something new and brave.The Europeans believed God and reason were on their side,and they had a post-Renaissance view that human beings were enabled by their will to accomplish whatever they wanted.They saw no animal origins behind the superb apex of creation they believed humankind to be.The Native Americans were assumed to be less than human,although some Europeans thought they were redeemable through education into the European view.Nevertheless,immigrants to the Western United States in the 19th century were rewarded in cash for the scalps of Native Americans.

Behavior of the two groups was also very different.The immigrants were loud when the natives were silent;they were aggressive when natives were passive.

The immigrants bought and sold slaves that were not considered quite human.The slave owners would have been astounded by the notion that the slaves possessed their own view－from their own cultural windows－of a whole and complete vision of the meaning of life.The slave owners had no appreciation for the complex,rich,old cultures that had flourished in West Africa for centuries.The slave owners thought they were offering the slaves an opportunity to become“civilized” by their exposure to European culture.

1.The Challenges of Diversity

Diversity is a fact,and it is not going to go away.Not all cultures in the world are going to become like yours.Most people in the world actually think others ought to try to imitate and adopt their culture.This is true,no matter who “we” and “they” are.

Somehow we need to learn,in Hall’s words,to “accept the fact that there are many roads to truth and no culture has a corner on the path or is better equipped than others to search for it” .We can start with Hofstede’s advice,“The principle of surviving in a multicultural world is that one does not need to think,feel and act in the same way in order to agree on practical issues and to cooperate.” We can agree to be different and to allow for diversity.We can celebrate our own culture in terms of how it is or is not like another,and celebrate other cultures because they are different or similar.The more we know about other cultures the more we will know about our own.Then we can begin to explain why people from different cultures behave the way they do in business situations.Their behavior will differ,even if their workplace is in the same culture.

Often intercultural business communication is regarded as something necessary only for international business.But we want to emphasize that many cultures are represented within the borders of one nation:this is true of all countries that already have,or are rapidly developing,a high degree of technological expertise.In fact all large city centers,from Delhi to Detroit,from Caracas to Canton,are peopled by members of cultures from all over the world.

As materials,capital,expertise,and organizations migrate,so also the workforce of every major center in the world is increasingly made up of migrants.Markets,labor,and money are all global.Correspondingly,intercultural communication skills are extremely important for business people looking for markets,suppliers,partners,subsidiaries,or joint venture companies in foreign countries.Today’s successful business people must be able to communicate interculturally both at home and abroad.

Business travelers are often characterized as unaware of－and unconcerned about－priorities in other cultures and the behaviors they generate.They are supposedly interested only in profits.They say,“It works at home,so it will work anywhere.” or “I know how to sell/manufacture/manage anywhere.” or “My product is the best,so I don’t have to worry about the culture.” But these characterizations may not be accurate.Most business people want to act appropriately and avoid offending their counterparts in foreign countries.Most business people want to know the buttons to push that motivate people in other cultures,if only for the sake of making a sale.But those who are genuinely concerned about how to learn what matters in another culture have few guides,beyond lists of “do’s and taboos.” As we have suggested,such lists are never complete.

The do’s and taboos lists are usually accurate,but their helpfulness is limited.One sentence advice on behavior is like seeing a snapshot from a movie.It is accurate,but without the context of the movie’s story line,character development,or even the specific episode,the snapshot’s significance may not be understandable.Lists of do’s and taboos can’t explain why you should or should not behave in a particular way in a particular place.Lists can’t possibly be comprehensive.And even if a business traveler were armed with a very long list,who can consult a list for every nuance in every different country? It’s no wonder that business people may seem to discard tips on do’s and taboos in favor of simply being themselves and acting the same way abroad that they would at home.And yet most business people know that business as usual－doing what they do at home－can be counterproductive when doing business abroad.

To be effective in a foreign business setting,you need to know certain things,but not necessarily everything,about that culture’s priorities,its members’ attitudes,and how they think people should behave.With the right set of questions,you can learn what you need to know about how people of another culture think.Then you can draw parallels from how people think to how they probably expect you to act.For example,if you know people in a particular culture have great respect for age and seniority,you can infer they will appreciate your standing up when an older representative from their company comes into a meeting room.Because cultures are coherent,and understanding why enables you to understand the specific what of behavior.

For example,consider some of the list of do’s and don’ts above in the light of these explanations.Hospitality is highly valued in Kuwait,and refusing the offer of coffee offends that value.In Buddhist Thailand,the sole of the foot is the furthest part of the anatomy from heaven and the least sacred.To show the bottom of the foot to someone is to show disrespect.Similarly,it shouldn’t surprise you to know that Thais consider touching a person’s head to be disrespectful,since the head is sacred.In Japan,where standing out and being different threatens social harmony,matters of form－such as clothing－are dominated by consensus.In China,a host can lose face if the guest appears to be hungry,since it is the host’s role to offer even more than the guest can eat.Therefore,“cleaning your plate” is not a good idea.Time in Latin American cultures is flexible;it can be stretched to allow things to be attended to properly.

Once you begin to build a picture of a culture’s priorities,you can draw fairly accurate deductions about what kind of behavior will be offensive and what behavior will be pleasing.The later Chapters discuss what questions to ask in order to have an understanding of a culture that will enable you to do business effectively.

2.The Question of Change in Cultures

Much is written about the constant change cultures undergo.Agents of change,it is said,include global companies like Pepsi or Sony or Daimler Chrysler.It is true that popular taste changes;fads come and go,especially in the marketplace,which is driven by changing tastes.Popular culture,which comprises the products of the culture that are widely consumed－for example,music,food,hairstyles,clothing,recreational activities and their equipment styles of cars,furnishings—does constantly change.But back-stage culture,the values that have been learned from birth,change very little and very,very slowly.

In many places around the world,going out for fast food has become an accustomed social pastime for teenagers and for seniors.Students from Korea visiting Taiwan were delighted when,after eating the food of Taiwan for a week,they were allowed to go to one of “their” restaurants－a McDonald’s! They are no less Korean because they eat fast food that originated in the United States.Sufferers from migraine headaches in Argentina who consult acupuncturists are no less Argentine for seeking a Chinese traditional treatment.These are instances of popular taste.

More significant change in social organization occurs with economic change.In China,a country that has always practiced behaviors associated with the Confucian value of filial piety,economic change is making a shift in family structure.Rather than a son bringing his wife to his parents’ home,married couples are increasingly living on their own.This change has come about because young people can afford housing of their own,and their parents can also afford to house themselves.It isn’t clear,however,that this change in housing means filial piety is no longer valued in China.Filial piety－the duty children have to look after aging parents and to put their wishes before the children’s own－may simply take other forms than living with the parents.

A study of many generations’ values will be necessary to demonstrate that cultures actually change,in China or anywhere else.Cultures appear to remain unchanged at deep levels and only change on the surface.

3.Culture Shock and Reverse Culture Shock

(1)Culture shock.One of the inevitable experiences of immersion in a new and unfamiliar culture is culture shock.It happens to everybody.It’s important to know that culture shock and its symptoms are normal and to be expected in cross-cultural immersion experiences.

The term “culture shock” is not quite accurate because it refers to a range of responses that take place over time.It isn’t a single jolt.Culture shock is the sense of dislocation along with the problems,psychological and even physical,that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture.

The first stage of experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria.Everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderful.This stage generally lasts no longer than two weeks,and some people skip it altogether.Travelers sometimes go home before they have progressed to the next stage.

The second stage is usually a downturn as disillusionment and frustration arise.This is usually the stage people refer to when they use the term “culture shock”.It is a sense of dislocation that results from finding out that inadequacies exist in your understanding,your mental road map,for navigating in this new culture.You don’t know what you don’t know.Finding out what you don’t know is exhausting,even when it is also exciting.Inevitably there are disappointments,in yourself and in others;inevitably you make mistakes.When the adjustment to a new culture means an upward change in status,people feel good about the new culture longer.When the adjustment means a downward change in status,people feel unhappy more quickly.

Most sojourners experience psychological symptoms of culture shock.Some people find themselves becoming depressed.They may experience long periods of homesickness.Some are very lonely,and they may be involved in relationships that they wouldn’t form if they were in their own culture.Nearly all sojourners and temporary residents in a new culture experience dissatisfaction with the way things are.Things that formerly seemed acceptable become irritations.Sojourners can become aggressive and exhibit unpleasant behavior that they would not use at home.They may get angry easily and express hostility and suspicion towards members of their host culture.Frequently,culture shock shows itself when sojourners believe native members of the culture are trying to take advantage of them－to overcharge them,for example－because they are foreign.

Physical symptoms of distress also can result from this stage of culture shock.They include aches and pains,chronic fatigue and lack of energy,loss of appetite,inability to get a good night’s sleep,stomach upsets,and frequent colds.This stage can last longer than the first euphoric stage－perhaps months.

The third stage is adjustment.As the expatriate sees both sides and learns more about how the other culture works,he or she is able to cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture.Some successes may occur,and solutions may be found for the problems that seemed so unreasonable and intractable in second stage.At this stage business can probably be conducted successfully.

The fourth stage,integration,occurs when the expatriate becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes,beliefs,and values and by the behaviors they generate.Often linguistic fluency accompanies this stage.At this stage the expatriate is able to identify with the host culture.Businesses whose employee achieves integration in another culture may feel at some risk.They may worry that their employee,who is now so at home in another culture,does not totally represent them any more.

Most people who work in another culture,regardless of the length of the stay,experience all four stages of culture shock.Furthermore,the longer one stays,the more cycles one goes through;the fourth stage,in which one feels comfortable in the new culture,leads to another euphoric stage,followed by frustration and disappointment,followed by adjustment,and so on.

You can reduce the symptoms of culture shock if you are prepared to deal with it:

①Before you leave home,think about what you’ll miss most and try to make some arrangements to keep it in your life.Take books,music,and personal possessions that are important to you.

②Think about what you can do to pass holidays and special days that you usually spend with family and friends.

③Make plans to keep in touch with special people and to have funds for an occasional phone call or package.You may need to make some arrangements before you go for ensuring a reliable connection.

④If you can get people to write on a regular basis,you’ll find you appreciate their news very much.For example,family members or people you work with could take turns,each writing a message by e-mail or snail mail once a week.

⑤You can also feel closer to home if you can find people in the new environment who are from your own culture.But beware of the tendency to develop an “us” and “them” attitude toward the host culture;foreigners can encourage each other to adopt hostile views of the natives that make it harder to deal with culture shock,not easier.

⑥It helps to have someone to talk to who will listen sympathetically－preferably someone from the host culture.You may be able to be the listener,too;look around and see who is a foreigner in your midst.

⑦It also helps to know that culture shock does pass.The downward pattern of depression and loneliness eventually gives way to an upward swing of optimism and connection with the new culture.As the date of departure for home draws near,most sojourners feel positive about the new culture they have experienced,and positive about themselves.

(2)Reverse culture shock.A similar adjustment period and its accompanying symptoms usually occur when a sojourner returns home.This is often called reverse culture shock.It takes people by surprise who don’t realize it is normal.After all,it’s somewhat ironic－the sojourner has been longing to return to the old,familiar culture of home.But once home,the sojourner finds many things to criticize and often asks why the old culture can’t be more like the one so recently encountered.Friends and family typically find the traveler impatient with things that never used to cause complaint.Sojourners’ most frequent complaint is that nobody wants to hear about the wonderful new experiences they’ve had.

Expatriates also find that people at home have had new experiences to which they must adjust.Things have changed at the company where the sojourner works,and people have been promoted,achieved successes,retired,left for another employer,and so forth.The sojourner is something of an outsider and may have a new job to get used to as well as new contacts to make.Returnees feel they have been laboring in the foreign fields for the sake of the corporation,usually at some non-monetary cost and personal sacrifice,but upon return they often feel they are not valued.Some companies provide mentors and training programs to ease reentry.

4.Typical Reactions to Unfamiliar Cultures

The most common response to diversity is to choose somehow not to accommodate it.Human reaction is to reject difference.We insist on sameness and require people to conform to us.Or we deny difference,choosing not to see it even when it is there.

(1)Assumptions of superiority.A universal response to differences in cultures is:“Of course they’re different,but we’re better.” Most cultures assume their own values and practices are superior to those of the rest of the world.English-speaking cultures encode this assumption of superiority by using words such asbackwardandprimitive,when actually those evaluations are one cultural view,seen through specific cultural windows,not an absolute assessment.A village in Bangladesh that lacks most of the technology taken for granted in the workplaces of other parts of the world－telephones,electricity,automobiles,airplanes－may have a more sophisticated conflict-resolution process than the technologically advanced cultures of the world.So who is “backward”?

(2)Ethnocentrism.Business people can generally depend on this:Members of other cultures,deep down in their heart of hearts,are convinced their own culture is the right one.People everywhere tend to assume their own culture is right and normal,and to assess all other cultures by how closely they resemble their own.Most people,especially those with little experience of other cultures,believe their own culture(ethnicity)is at the center of human experience－hence“ethnocentrism”.

For this reason,ethnocentrism can lead to complacency.We may not make an effort to look further than our own culture,and we may see little importance in understanding other cultures.In other words,ethnocentrism leads to assuming one’s own culture is superior to all others－the assumption of superiority.

(3)Assumptions of universality.One of the comments you often hear from travelers to foreign countries is:“They may talk(dress,eat,etc.)differently,but underneath they’re just like us.” But this is profoundly mistaken and potentially dangerous romanticism.People underneath are not alike.People begin with different operating environments and run different software.People have different databases and process information differently.As a result,they arrive at different results.As we saw earlier,culture is the whole view of the universe from which people assess the meaning of life and their appropriate response to it.

Business is multicultural;business is worldwide.No organization can afford to go along believing that members of different cultures are all seeking to conform to one culture,or that one day differences will cease to exist.Therefore,the key for business is to find ways for people who think differently to work together.